1 


Issued  July  G, 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  SOILS— BULLETIN  No.  44. 

MILTON   WHITNEY,   Chief. 


P  CLAM  ATI  OX  OF  ALKALI   SOILS 
AT  BILLINGS,  MONTANA. 


.     a&Mtr^ 


BY 


CLARENCE  W.   DORSKY. I—L 


\V  ASM  '  \(  ;  |'<  )\: 

mini     PRINTING    "ii  I'  K. 

L907. 


Properly  0/  the  United  Stales  Governmial 

Issued  July  6,  1007. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  SOILS— BULLETIN  No.  44. 

MILTON   WHITNEY,   Chief. 


RECLAMATION   OF  ALKALI   SOILS 
AT  BILLINGS,  MONTANA. 


BY 


CLARENCE  \Y.  DOKSKY 


WASHINGTON: 

QOVBRNMEN  i     PRIN1  [NG    l  >FFH  B 

1907. 


Bl  KKAl    OF  SOILS. 


Milton    Whitney,  Chief  of  Bureau. 
Albert  G.  Rice,  Chief  Clerk. 

SCIENTIFIC    STAFF. 

Frank  K.  Cameron,  in  charge  of  Soil  Laboratories. 
Frank  l>.  Gardner,  in  charge  of  Soil  Management. 
George  T.  McNess,  in  charge  of  Tobacco  Investigations. 
Clari  \<  i  w.  Dorset,  in  charge  of  Alkali  Land  Reclamation. 

Jay  A.  BONSTEEL,  in  charge  <>f  Soil  Survey. 

Oswald  SCHREINER,  in  charge  Of  Fertility   Investigations. 

w  .1  McGee,  in  charge  <>f  Soil  Erosion  Investigations, 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

BUREAT     OF    Soil  8, 

Washington,  D.  67.,  May  /.  1907, 
Sir:    I   have   the   honor   to  transmit    herewith   a    paper  entitled 

Reclamation  of  Alkali  Soils  at  Billings.  Mont.,  by  Clarence  W.  Dor- 
sey,  of  this  Bureau.  This  paper  details  the  general  conditions  of  this 
part  of  the  Yellowstone  Valley  as  regards  alkali  and  seepage  water. 
and  gives  an  account  of  the  reclamation  demonstration  carried  OD 
near  Billings  on  the  O'Donnell  tract.  The  results  of  the  work  at 
Billings  have  been  very  gratifying  and.  I  believe,  have  resulted  in 
awakening  general  interest  in  the  question  of  reclaiming  these  alkali 
Lands,  both  by  the  farmers  privately  and  in  cooperation  with  the 
State. 

I  recommend  the  publication  of  this  report  a-  Bulletin  N<>.  H  of 
the  Bureau  of  Soil-. 

Very  respectfully,  Milton  Whitney, 

( '  Ji'n  f  of  Bureau, 
Hon.  .1  \  mes  Wilson, 

Si >  /'  /'//•'/  <>f  .  Vgricultun  . 

8 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2013 


http://archive.org/details/reclalkOOdors 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Introduction 7 

Soil  and  alkali  conditions  in  the  valley 8 

Results  of  alkali  studies  made  during   1898     8 

Results  of  the  soil  survey  of  the  Billings  area  in  1902 i<» 

Reclamation  of  the  O'Donnell   tract 15 

Private  effort  In  reclaiming  alkali  land       is 

Summary -<» 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 
PLAT!  I.  Fig.  1. — Showing  barren  aspeci  Of  the  land  included  in  the 
O'DoqmII  tract  before  reclamation  Fig.  2. — Showing  heavy 
stand  of  oats  oe  the  same  trad  after  one  year's  treatment 
by  the  underdrainage-flooding  method  of  reclaiming  alkali 
hinds  l.; 


Fig.  i.     Map  ^h«'\\in.ur  general  distribution  of  alkali  lands  11 

-.     Plan  of  drains,  O'Donnell  tract  16 


RECLAMATION  OF  ALKALI  SOILS  AT  BILLINGS, 

MO  MAX  A. 


XTROIUCTION. 


Billing  is  situated  in  southeastern  Montana,  in  a  long,  narrow 
valley  characteristic  of  the  lower  Yellowstone  River  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  State.  The  valley  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  -harp 
sandstone  bluffs,  rising  from  200  to  500  feet  above  the  valley  floor. 
On  the  south  in  places  hold  bluffs  of  blue  -hale  sharply  define  the 
valley  or  it  merge-  into  a  mass  of  rounded  hills  that  increase  in 
height  at  greater  distances  from  the  river.  The  river  occupies  the 
lowest  trough  in  the  valley  while  successively  higher  terraces  of  low 
elevation  give  character  to  the  surface  relief  of  the  valley.  The  ter- 
race- art-  marked  by  steep  fact-  on  the  river  side  and  extend  as  wide, 
level  plateau-  in  place-  attaining  a  maximum  width  of  4  mile-.  They 
bear  a  definite  relation  to  the  course  of  the  river  and  mark  the  various 
stages  in  the  formation  of  the  valley. 

Billings  has  an  elevation  of  3,119  feel  above  sea  level.  The  climate 
i-  characterized  by  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  and  an  annual  rainfall 
of  about  L5  Inches,  the  greater  part  of  which  occurs  during  the 
spring  and  early  summer  months.  The  climate  may  he  classed  as 
typical  of  the  great  semiarid  plains  lying  ea-t  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain-. 

At  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  the  valley  only  a  very  -mall  pro 
portion  of  tin-  land  showed  any  sign  of  alkali.  The  areas  where 
alkali  was  plainly  in  evidence  occurred  in  the  eastern  pari  of  the 
valley  and  in  occasional  area-  below  the  higher  bench  line.  Near 
the  present  —  i t « -  of  Billings  and  east  to  the  riveronly  alkali-resistant 
vegetation    grew    abundantly    and    there    was    sufficient    alkali    in 

places  to  form  a  crust.  There  were  al-o  other  areas  -cat!-  i.d 
throughout  the  \alle\  that  contained  more  or  less  alkali.  With  the 
construction  of  the  Minnesota  and  Montana  [mprovement  ditch  in 
ivs-j  irrigation  began,  but  the  rapid  settlement  and  development  of 
the  valley  did  not   take  place  until   is<-,(».     Ahont    four  years  later, 

when   large  area-   were  under  irrigation,  damage   from  seepage   water 

was  first  noticed.  Some  of  the  lower  land-  became  too  wet  for  culti 
vation  and  were  given  over  to  the  growth  of  rushes  and  other  water 
loving  plant-.    Other  areas  of  water  logged  -oil-  appeared,  increased 


b  RECLAMATION    OF    ALKALI    SOILS    IX    MONTANA. 

in  size,  and  were  abandoned  when  cultivation  was  no  longer  possible. 

Not  only  were  the  lands  damaged  by  the  rise  of  the  ground  water, 
but  alkali  also  appeared  in  increasing  quantities  and  proved  more 
serious  than  the  injury  from  excess  of  water. 

This  damage  continued  for  many  years  and  the  situation  appeared 
serious  indeed.  Many  fanner-  abandoned  their  farms  and  moved 
to  other  parts  of  the  valley  where  cheap  lands  could  be  obtained.  In 
the  last  few  years,  however,  the  situation  has  become  more  encourag- 
ing and  conditions  at  the  present  time  are  such  that  the  farmers  of  the 
valley  need  no  longer  fear  alkali.  It  has  been  found  that  the  alkali 
i-  confined  to  certain  well-defined  areas  and  is  not  extending  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  these  areas,  which  do  not  aggregate  more  than  10 
per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  entire  valley.  An  active  interest  in  the 
subject  of  drainage  has  resulted  in  the  formation  of  drainage  dis- 
tricts, and  already  several  large  drainage  systems  have  been  com- 
pleted, with  others  contemplated  in  the  near  future.  Besides  this 
important  work  the  reclamation  of  a  tract  of  alkali  land  by  the 
Bureau  of  Soils  has  shown  that  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  restore  the 
damaged  lands  to  their  former  productiveness  by  methods  well  within 
the  reach  of  the  progressive  fanners  of  the  valley. 

SOIL    AM)    ALKALI    CONDITIONS    IN    TIIK    VALLEY. 

The  alkali  situation  was  first  called  to  the  attention  of  the  Bureau 
of  Soils  in  ls(.)7.  In  that  year  Professor  Whitney  spent  a  few  days  in 
making  a  rapid  reeonnoissance  of  the  valley.  He  found  that  there 
was  much  uncertainty  on  the  part  of  the  farmers  as  to  just  what  the 
conditions  in  the  soil  were.  It  was  then  decided  that  a  more  thorough 
study  of  the  valley  should  be  made,  to  determine,  if  possible,  the 
conditions  in  the  soil,  the  possible  results  if  present  methods  were 
continued,  how  to  prevent  the  spread  of  alkali,  and  what  should  be 
done  to  reclaim  the  already  abandoned  lands.  Such  an  investigation 
was  made  in  the  summer  of  L898  by  Mr.  Thomas  II.  Means,  and  the 
results  were  published  a-  Bulletin  No.  11  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils. 

RESULTS   OF   ALKALI    STUDIES    MADE    DUBING     1808, 

Concerning  the  source  of  the  alkali  it  was  found  that  the  farmers 
had  advanced  many  theories  and  there  was  widespread  belief  thai 
(lie  alkali  Mat-  could  probably  be  reclaimed  by  Hooding  the  surface 
during  a  dry  season  and  washing  the  crust  oil.  Determinations  of 
the  amount  and  location  of  the  alkali  in  the  soil  plainly  showed  that 
the  crust  contained  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  alkali  and  that 
such  a  method  would  be  inefficient.  In  every  case  of  Injury  t<>  crops 
that  was  examined  it  was  shown  that  the  first  trouble  was  an  accu 
mulation  of  seepage  water  near  the  surface,  and.  while  the  water  did 
not  contain  excessive  quantities  of  alkali  at  first,  continued  evapora- 


ALKALI    STUDIES    MADE    DURING    1898.  9 

tion  resulted  in  concentrating  sufficient  alkali  at  the  surface  to  injure 
crops. 

An  examination  of  the  structure  of  the  valley  showed  that  it  had 
been  carved  out  of  sandstones  and  underlying  -hales.  The  sand- 
stones thai  rise  abruptly  above  the  valley  on  the  north  are  porous  and 
carry  -mall  quantities  of  magnesium  and  sodium  sulphates,  which 
frequently  appear  a-  a  white  incrustation  on  the  hare  rock  surface. 
The  -oft  blue  -hale-  forming  the  boundary  of  the  valley  on  the  south 
are  penetrated  hv  numerous  line  cracks  and  joints  tilled  with  fibrous 
gypsum,  while  larger  cavities  carry  gypsum  and  calcium  carbonate. 
Throughout  the  mass  of  the  shales  are  found  large  quantities  of 
-odium  and  magnesium  sulphates,  which  form  a  white  incrustation 
on  the  surface. 

The  -oils  of  the  valley  were  found  to  have  been  formed  from  the 
weathering  of  these  shales  and  sandstones,  modified  and  deposited 
by  stream  action.  So  it  would  appear  that  the  rock-  are  directly 
responsible  for  the  soluble  -alt-  contained  in  the  -oil-,  these  -alt-  con- 
sisting principally  of  sodium  and  magnesium  sulphate.  The  sandy 
soils  occurring  in  the  valley  have  been  derived  largely  from  the 
sandstones,  and  hence  contain  originally  less  salts  than  the  heavy 
-oil-  that   have  been   derived   from   shal<  3. 

A  detailed  study  was  made  of  sec.  2,  T.  1  S.,  R.  25  E.,  and  map- 
were  prepared  showing  the  alkali  and  underground  water  condi- 
tion-. These  maps  clearly  showed  the  relation  of  seepage  water-  t<» 
the  accumulation  of  alkali  and  how  essential  such  a  study  i-  to  the 
propei-  understanding  of  the  question  of  providing  remedies  to 
check  further  damage.  A  study  was  also  made  of  the  quantity  of 
-alt-  being  removed  by  a  drainage  ditch  surrounding  the  town  of 
Billings,  which  had  been  constructed  to  intercept  the  seepage  waters 
from  higher  irrigated  land-.  From  this  it  was  found  that  the  flow 
of  water  in  the  ditch  was  about  10  second-feet  and  that  about  I6j 
ton-  of  salt  per  hour  wa-  being  removed;  that  i-.  it  was  rapidly  car- 
rying away  the  alkali  seepage  waters,  thereby  checking  the  concentra- 
tion of  alkali   in  adjoining  land-. 

The  investigation  further  showed  that  before  irrigation  the  salts 
were  present,  hut  so  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  soils  that  they 
were  not  injurious  to  crops.  The  injury  was  found  to  he  due  to 
over  irrigation,  to  the  translocation  and  local  accumulation  of  salts 
I  >\  seepage  water-,  to  the  imperfect  drainage  facilities  in  the  clay 
-oil-,  and  the  inability  of  the  soils  to  remove  the  exci    -  of  -alt-  and 

seepage  water-.      It    wa-  pointed  out   that   the  only  way  to  prevent    the 

final  abandonment  of  the  land  containing  alkali  wa-  to  provide 
uhderdrainage   systems   t<>   carry   off   the   excess   of   water   and    the 

82     •  »T  L* 


12  RECLAMATION     OF    ALKALI     SOILS    IX     MONTANA. 

crops  were  negligible.  Eighteen  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  acres  contained  from  0.20  to  0.60  per  cent  of  alkali  |  2,000  to  6,000 
parts  per  1,000,000),  and  while  the  damage  due  to  alkali  was  not 
great,  in  case  all  of  the  alkali  became  concentrated  in  the  upper  layers 
of  soil  injury  would  undoubtedly  result.  An  area  of  5,568  acres  con- 
tained from  0.60  to  1.0  per  cent  of  alkali,  which  is  a  little  too  much 
for  the  crops  generally  grown  in  the  valley.  Only  1,844-  acres  con- 
tained more  than  1  per  cent  of  alkali,  and  in  their  condition  at  that 
time  (1902)  were  of  little  agricultural  value.  From  these  figures. 
representing  the  various  grades  of  alkali,  as  well  as  from  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  small  sketch  ma}),  it  will  he  seen  that  only  about  one-tenth 
of  the  area  contains  sufficient  alkali  to  be  a  serious  menace  to  crop-. 

In  general  it  was  found  that  the  vertical  distribution  of  the  alkali 
is  governed  by  the  texture  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  and  by  the  position 
of  the  soil  and  subsoil.  In  uncultivated  areas  of  clay  soil  where 
alkali  occurs  its  distribution  below  the  first  foot  is  quite  uniform, 
the  maximum  quantity  being  found  generally  at  a  depth  of  5  feet. 
Where  the  soils  are  heavy  clay  but  have  lighter  subsoils  the  maximum 
alkali  content  is  in  one  of  the  upper  X  feet  of  soil,  but  less  alkali  is 
found  in  the  lower  depths,  the  quantity  depending  largely  upon  the 
height  of  the  ground  water.  In  the  deep  clay  soils  where  irrigation 
has  been  judiciously  carried  on  the  greatest  quantity  of  alkali  is 
found  at  a  depth  of  from  3  to  6  feet.  On  some  of  the  wide,  level 
terraces  and  lower  alkali  lands  along  the  river  there  is  generally  a 
surface  accumulation  of  alkali  with  the  maximum  salt  content  in  the 
first  or  second  foot.  In  these  localities  the  ground  water  is  quite 
near  the  surface  and  within  easy  reach  of  the  upward  capillary  power 
of  the  soil. 

Above  the  canal  in  the  sandy  soils  that  have  not  as  yet  been  irri- 
gated little  or  no  alkali  was  found  in  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  6  feet, 
but  modei-ate  quantities  were  usually  encountered  at  7  and  8  feet, 
generally  Increasing  with  the  depth.  The  alkali  in  the  alluvial  sandy 
loams  found  along  the  Yellowstone  has  resulted  from  evaporation 
of  seepage  water  from  higher  lands.  As  before  noted,  the  alkali  in 
the  higher  bench  and  terrace  soils  has  been  derived  directly  from  the 
breaking  down  of  the  sandstone  and  shale  rocks,  especially  the  Latter, 
\\  liieh  are  rieh  in  soluble  salts. 

The  general  distribution  of  the  larger  alkali  areas  bears  a  direct 
relationship    to   the    topography    of   the    valley.      A-   has   been    stated. 

the  valley  floor  Is  marked  by  wide  terraces,  with  a  sharp  blull"  of  from 
\:>  to  30  feet  emphasizing  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  differ- 
ent terraces.  The  outer  or  southern  edge  of  these  terraces  is  almost 
invariably  higher  than  the  central  portion,  and  in  places  is  even 
higher  than  the  northern  part.  A-  a  result  of  these  topographic 
condition-,  the  depressions  first  became  swampy  a-  overirrigation  was 


RESULTS    OF    SOIL    SURVEY    IN    1902. 


13 


practiced  on  the  higher  soil-.  The  irrigation  water.  a>  it  slowly 
soaked  through  the  soil,  dissolved  the  salts  and  carried  them  to  the 
troughlike  depressions.  Evaporation  of  much  of  this  water  con- 
centrated the  salts,  and  these  swampy  areas  were  finally  abandoned 
as  alkali  fiats.  The  poor  underdrainage  of  the  clay  soils  has  materi- 
ally hastened  this  process  of  converting  water-logged  land-  into  alkali 
swamps. 

The  following  table  contains  analyses  of  samples  of  alkali  crusts 
and  soils.  The  samples  are  typical  of  the  alkali  found  in  the  soils  in 
the  Yellowstone  Valley.  It  will  be  noticed  that  sodium  sulphate  pre- 
dominates, with  much  smaller  quantities  of  calcium  and  magnesium 
sulphate.  The  chlorides  and  bicarbonates  arc  present  only  in  small 
amounts,  with  traces  of  alkaline  carbonate-. 

Chemical  analyses  of  salts  of  tu/>i<-iil  alkali  crusts  ami  soils  of  tin-  Billings  area. 


Constituent. 


(UKK). 

NYarNW. 

corner 

sec.  2, 

T.  1  S., 

R.  26  e., 

alkali 

crust  0  to 

1  inch. 


/' 

/•  CI  lit. 

0 

79 

1 

:y 

28 

16 
72 

67 

7:; 
18 

font: 

Calcium  (Cal 

Magnesium  (Mg) 

Mini  (Na) , 

Potassium  (K  | , 

Sulphuric  acid  (  SO^ 

Chlorine  (CI) ' 

Blcarbonic  acid  (HC08)  

Carbonic  acid  [00%) Trace. 


Com  entional  combinations: 
Calcium  sulphate  (CaS< 
Magnesium  Bulphate 
Sodium  sulphate  i  Na«8< 

Potassium  sulphate  |  K .-'  ». 
Sodium  bicarbonate  <  Na  U(  <  1 
Sodium  carbonate    Na  CO 

Rodium  chloride  f  Na<  if) 


Center 

see.   10, 

T.  1  S.. 
R.  26  K.. 

soil  0  to 

u»  inches. 


Center 

see.  111. 

T.  1  S., 
It.  26  K.. 

alkali 


J'i  r  <■>  nt. 
2.99 

JO.  56 
9.  63 

Trace. 

16.06 
4.06 


8.  center 

T.  1  8., 
K.  26  K.. 
alkali 
crust  Oto    crust 0 to 

1  inch.        1  inch. 


Cent<  r 

-■ 

T.  1  >.. 

R   26  E 

crust  0  to 

1  inch. 


l'ir  nut.    Percent. 


0.16 
.24 

31.73 
88 

1.   is 


Per  cent  s.iluhle 


•J.  71 

1 .  lit) 
.f.7 
Trace. 
5 


ln.07 

85.12 

21.  U 

22.  06 

7.  28 
Trace. 


.  55 

1 .  si 

1 .  96 
3.90 
1  87 

2.  1 1 


2.01 

23.51 

2.78 

3.24 

1 .  85 


4.11 
2.  ">7 

■1.  79 
61.06 

1.7H 
•J.  68 


W.  center 
see.  34, 
T.  1  S.. 
K.  26  K  . 

alkali 

crust  Oto 

1  Inch. 


/•<  r  <■'  nt. 
1 .  85 

I.C8 

66.  19 

1.54 

1.06 


12.29 
9.  91 

6.  1 B 


14.00 
12.  76 

6.15 


11 


72 


6.08 
1  1.58 

2.  U 


14.68 


■   1 


17. (Hi 


1 .  79 


9.  04 


Ii  is  the  exception  to  find  in  an  arid  country  alkali  consisting 
mainly  of  -odium  sulphate;  in  most  cases  sodium  chloride  is  the 
predominant  constituent.  A.s  compared  with  the  t  \  j >* -  of  alkali 
found  in  other  districts,  the  Billings  type  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
the  least  injurious  to  field  crops.  Some  determinations  as  to  its 
effects  on  crops  were  made  in  the  different  years  during  which  the 
Bureau  studied  the  alkali  conditions  in  the  valley,  as  well  as  in  L906, 
when  the  reclamation  work  was  in  progress.  From  the  following 
statements  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  general  the  crop-  are  able  to 
withstand  more  alkali  than  in  areas  where  sodium  chloride  or  the 
more  toxic  sodium  carbonate  prevails, 

Although  L906  was  the  first  year  in  which  sugar  beets  were  grown. 
it  -ecu  1-  1  hat  they  are  the  most  resistant  crop  to  alkali  that  is  grown  in 


14  RECLAMATION    OF    ALKALI    SOILS    IN     MONTANA. 

the  valley.  Fields  were  found  where  the  beets  were  growing  in  from 
0.00  to  1  per  cent  of  alkali,  while  the  surface  foot  contained  nearly  1 
per  cent.  Alfalfa,  after  it  has  become  well  established,  comes  next 
in  resistance,  a-  it  has  been  found  in  good  condition  in  -oil  averaging 
a  little  over  0.60  per  cent.  In  one  place,  where  the  water  table  was 
about  4  feet  below  the  surface,  alfalfa  was  in  poor  condition,  with  an 
average  of  0.50  per  cent  of  salt  present.  Oats  have  been  found  grow- 
ing in  soil  containing  0.85  per  cent  and  0.91  per  cent  of  alkali,  as 
averages  for  6  feet.  The  plant-  in  both  cases  were  small  and  weakly, 
and 'were  only  surviving.  These  limits  are.  of  course,  too  high  to  be 
taken  as  a  guide  for  the  resistance  of  this  crop,  but  shows  how  much 
salt  can  be  tolerated  by  some  individual  plants.  Good  oats  were 
found  growing  in  soil  with  0.58  per  cent  as  an  average  for  0  feet  and 
with  no  surface  accumulation.  Only  one  Held  of  wheat  was  noticed 
where  there  were  alkali  spots.  At  the  vd^e  of  these  spots,  where  the 
wheat  was  dying,  the  soil  averaged  only  0.20  to  0.40  per  cent  to  a 
depth  of  6  feet,  with  0.55  per  cent  for  the  surface  foot. 

A  comparison  of  the  conditions  in  selected  areas  in  100:2  with  the 
conditions  existing  in  L898  showed  that  the  alkali  accumulations  were 
'(•'coming  more  pronounced.  This  was  particularly  brought  out  by 
a  study  of  sec.  2,  T.  1  S.,  R.  25  E.,  which  had  been  given  special  atten- 
tion in  L898.  By  u>ing  the  same  method  of  alkali  determination  (the 
electrolytic  bridge)  it  was  found  just  what  changes  had  taken  place 
in  the  intervening  period.  In  L898,  of  the  entire  section  (640  acres) 
only  L86  acres  contained  alkali  in  what  may  be  considered  injurious 
quantities,  while  t54  acre-  contained  some  alkali,  but  not  enough  to 
damage  crops.  In  1902  it  was  found  that  the  area  of  land  contain- 
ing much  alkali  had  increased  to  506  acres.  Again,  in  ls'.,s  it  was 
found  that  the  greatest  concentration  of  alkali  in  the  first  foot  of 
-oil  did  imt  exceed  1  per  cent,  and  there  were  only  13  acres  contain- 
ing from  0.60  to  l.o  per  cent  to  a  depth  of  6  feet,  but  in  1902  there 
were  224  acre-  with  from  0.00  to  1.0  pel1  cent  and  L28  acre-  contain- 
ing more  than  1  per  cent.  This  is  a  striking  example  of  the  manner 
in  which  alkali  has  continued  to  accumulate  on  a  given  trad  of  land 
where  no  remedial  measures  had  been  adopted.  In  I'.mm;  the  alkali 
conditions  were  studied  again  over  the  entire  valley  to  ascertain  the 

change-,   if  any.  since    L902.      It    wa-    found   that    the  area   affected   h\ 

alkali  had  about  reached  its  maximum  limit:  that  i-.  the  increase 
in  land  damaged  by  alkali  was  verv  -light  in  the  four  year-  that 
had  elapsed  since  the  survej   was  made  in  L902.     This  study  clearly 

brought  out  the  fact.  however,  that  the  concentration  of  alkali  in  the 
well-defined   alkali   areas  is   increasing  rapidly.     Localities  that    in 

L902  were  only  -lightly  damaged  by  alkali  have  -nice  been  abandoned 
because  the  land  i-  no  longer  capable  of  producing  crop-.  While 
this  i-  a  serious  matter  o>  those  owning  land-  containing  alkali,  the 


15 

knowledge  that  the  possible  limit  of  spread  has  been  reached  i<  grati- 
fying for  the  entire  valley. 

RECLAMATION   OF   THE   o'DONNELL   TRACT. 

In  1004  the  Bureau  undertook  the  reclamation  of  a  tract  of  alkali 
land  in  the  Yellowstone  Valley.  This  was  in  line  with  the  policy 
of  the  Bureau,  namely,  to  establish  demonstration  experiments  in 
reclaiming  alkali  land  in  different  areas  where  a  -oil  survey  had 
clearly  defined  the  alkali  problem.  The  report-  made  by  the  Bureau 
in  1898,  as  well  as  in  \(.H)-2.  plainly  showed  the  cause  of  the  trouble 
and  the  way  of  attacking  the  question,  and  stated,  moreover,  that  con- 
ditions in  the  valley  were  very  simple  as  compared  with  other  irri- 
gated district-.  In  order,  then,  to  demonstrate  the  principles  in 
reclaiming  alkali  land,  a  tract  of  land  1  mile  west  of  Billings  was 
-elected  for  the  experiment.  The  tract  was  within  easy  reach  of 
Billings  and  near  one  of  the  prominent  road-  of  the  valley,  a  location 
where  the  progress  of  the  work  could  be  observed  by  those  interested. 
PI.  T.  fig.  1.  shows  the  condition  of  the  land  a-  it  appeared  when 
selected  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils.  No  useful  crop-  had  ever  been 
grown  on  the  land,  although  one  or  two  attempt-  had  been  made  a 
Bcore  of  year-  ago.  There  were  many  place-  covered  with  a  thick 
crust  of  alkali,  while  other  pail-  of  the  tract  supported  a  scattering 
growth  of  greasewood,  -alt  grass,  and  bunches  of  prickly  pear  cactus. 

In  texture  the  -oil  varies  from  a  sandy  loam  to  a  -till'  claw  locally 
known  as  gumbo.  The  clay  -oil  is  sticky  and  difficult  to  cultivate 
and  -o  impervious  that  water  percolates  through  it  very  slowly.  In 
places  at  a  depth  of  several  feet  gravel  i-  found,  which  i<  often  firmly 
cemented  together  and  i-  well-nigh  impervious  to  water.  An  alkali 
survey  of  the  tract  gave  the  following  results:  Fourteen  acres,  nearly 
three-fourths  of  the  tract,  contained  more  than  1  per  cent  of  alkali 
to  a  depth  of  1  feet  :  !._  acre-  contained  from  <».<',()  to  L.O  per  cent,  and 
L.6  acres  carried  Prom  0.  I<»  to  0.60  per  cent  of  alkali.  The  maximum 
alkali  content  wa-  found  in  the  first  foot  and  usually  decreased  down- 
ward. Where  the  soil  consisted  of  heavy  clay  the  greatest  amount  of 
alkali  wa-  found.  The  alkali  wa-  typical  of  that  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  Billings  area.  It  consisted  mainly  of  -odium  sulphate, 
with  -mailer  quantities  of  magnesium  and  calcium  sulphate,  traces 
of  chlorides,  and  bicarbonate-,  but  no  traces  of  carbonates.  The 
ground  water  in  midsummer  stood  within  I  or  5  feet  from  the  sur- 
face and  carried  over  2  per  cent  of  soluble  -alt-. 

( )n  account  of  the  large  quantities  of  alkali  present  and  the  -low 
movement   of  water  through   the  -oil   a   drainage  system   wa-  con 
Bidered  necessary  to  achieve  marked  results  w  ithin  a  reasonable  time. 
An  outlet    wa-  easily  secured   l>\    digging  660   feet    t<>  the  drainage 


16 


RECLAMATION    OF    ALKALI    SOILS    IX    MONTANA. 


ditch  that  surrounds  the  city  of  Billings.  The  question  of  securing 
tiles  for  the  drainage  system  proved  more  troublesome.     When  it  was 

found  that  no  tiles  could  be  purchased  near  at  hand,  an  effort  was 
made  to  interest  a  local  brick  company  in  manufacturing  tiles.  This 
resulted  in  the  purchase  of  a  tile  machine  and  the  contract  was 
awarded  to  this  company.  There  had  always  been  a  small  demand  at 
Billings  and  near-by  points  for  drain  tiles  and  it  was  believed  a 
much  larger  demand  could  be  created  if  the  tiles  could  be  void  at 
much  lower  prices  than  those  purchased  at  distant  points.  By  mix- 
ing weathered  shale  with  the  ordinary  brick  clay  it  was  found  that 
a  satisfactory  tile  could  be  made.  After  making  several  hundred  feet 
of  tiles  the  tile  machine  was  broken  and  no  further  effort  was  made  by 
the  brick  company  to  fulfill  their  contract.  The  Bureau  was  then 
forced  to  purchase  tile-  from  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  which  greatly  de- 
layed the  installation  of  the  drainage  system.     The  accompanying 


ii7or..t 

I 

4,nch  t.U 

« 

s„ 

iZ7or,.t 

4mCA  film 

1 

4,ncht.l, 

/Z7or..t 

g 

if 

iZ7or..i 

4me»*h 

1 

4,mh  Lit 

J  ° 

K 

Fig.  -.     Plan  of  drains,  I  >']  i n  unci. 

-ketch  map  shows  the  general  plan  of  the  drainage  system  on  the 
O'Donnel]  trad.  The  drain-  were  placed  at  an  average  depth  of  1 
feet.  The  fall  given  the  line-  of  tile  was  about  3  inches  in  LOO  feet. 
The  -lope  of  the  land  i-  to  the  north  and  east.  On  account  of  the 
heavy    clay    subsoil    underlying    most    of    the    tract,    the    drains    were 

placed  at   interval-  <>f  \:\u  feet.     The  five  lateral-  consist  of   I  inch 

tile-,  with  -ilt  catchment  basins  placed  500  feet  from  the  eastern  end 
of  each    lateral.       From    the   junction    of   the    laterals   the   outlet    dram 

consists  of  a  box  open  on  the  bottom  placed  at  an  average  depth  of 
5  feet.  Registering  weir-  were  placed  at  the  outlet  of  the  drainage 
system  and  at  the  point  where  the  water-supply  canal  enters  the 
western  end  of  the  tract. 

The  cost  of  in-tailing  the  drainage  system  \\a-  approximately  $35 
an  acre.  This  excessive  cost  was  occasioned  by  the  cost  of  the  tries 
purchased  at  a  distant   point  and  by  the  <\\\   compacted  clay  sod-. 


Fig. 


1.— Showing  Barren  Aspect  of  the  Land  Included  in  the  O'Donnell  Tract 
Before  Reclamation. 


FlQ.  2.     Showing  Heavy  Stand  (  f-  Oats  on  the  Same  Thai  i    Af  | 
Treatment   by  the   Underdrainage-flooding  Method  of  Reclaims 
Lands. 


THK    O'DONNELL    TRACT,  17 

which  made  digging  the  ditches  painfully  slow.  It  is  believed  that 
with  tiles  sold  by  local  factories  at  reasonable  prices  and  by  excavat- 
ing the  trenches,  in  the  spring,  when  there  is  more  moisture  in  the 
soil,  the  cost  of  drainage  for  most  of  the  Billings  area  will  not 
exceed  on  an  average  $15  to  $26  an  acre.  The  drainage  system  was 
completed  too  late  in  (he  season  of  1*904  to  carry  on  flooding.  The 
tract,  however,  was  carefully  leveled  and  checks  thrown  up  to  hold 
the  water  on  the  land.  Fall  plowing  was  also  resorted  to  in  order  to 
leave  the  -oil  in  an  open  and  loose  condition  so  that  winter  rain-  and 
-now  might  readily  enter. 

The  early  spring  of  L905  was  remarkable  for  the  exceptionally 
heavy  rainfall.  It  undoubtedly  played  an  active  part  in  effecting  the 
reclamation  of  the  O'Donnell  tract.  With  the  beginning  of  the  heavy 
and  continued  rains  the  drains  at  once  responded  and  by  the  Latter 
part  of  June  the  abnormal  rainfall  had  materially  reduced  the  alkali 
content  of  the  tract.  From  early  in  July  until  the  end  of  September 
the  tract  was  submerged  practically  all  of  the  time.  By  an  adjust- 
ment of  small  supply  canals  the  water  was  allowed  to  run  night  and 
day  and  the  check-  were  continually  Idled.  There  were  two  short 
periods  when  there  was  a  scarcity  of  water  and  the  tract  was  not 
flooded,  hut  these  were  not  long  enough  to  allow  the  alkali  to  accumu- 
late at  the  surface. 

At  the  end  of  September,  1905,  the  soil  was  allowed  to  dry  and  an 
<  xamination  was  made  to  determine  the  changes  that  had  taken  place 
in  alkali  content  of  the  tract.  It  was  found  that  there  -till  remained 
iti  the  -oil  only  about  one-seventh  of  the  alkali  that  was  originally 
present.  An  alkali  survey  made  in  June.  1905,  after  the  heavy  spring 
rain-  showed  that  the  maximum  alkali  content  was  in  the  second  and 
third  feet,  l>ut  at  the  close  <>f  the  flooding  operations  in  September  the 
maximum  wasalmosi  uniformly  in  the  fourth  foot.  During  the  flood- 
ing period  sufficient  water  was  used  to  cover  the  entire  tract  to  a  depth 
<>f  G  feet,  while  the  rainfall  during  this  same  period  was  only  L.37 
inches;  the  evaporation  was  estimated  at  12  inches  from  a  free  water 
surface.     AJbout  one  half  of  the  water  used  in  flooding  passed  over 

the    outlet     weir    at    the    point     where    the    outlet     ditch    elliptic-    into    the 

Billings  drainage  ditch.  <>«»<»  feet  east  of  the  reclamation  tract.  A 
large  part  of  the  water  undoubtedly  passed  into  the  country 
drainage  of  the  tract  or  along  the  line  of  the  outlet  ditch.  Tests  of 
the  drainage  water  made  during  the  flooding  season  showed  that 
the  soluble  -alt-  decreased  from  9,000  part-  to  •*'».•_'.»<>  part-  per 
1,000,000.  At  the  close  of  the  season  the  tract  was  plowed  ami  har- 
rowed i<»  overcome  a-  far  a-  possible  the  had  effects  of  the  continued 
flooding. 

Rally     III     the    Spring    Of     190C    the    -<'il     appealed     to    he     i|]    excellent 


18  RECLAMATION     OF    ALKALI    SOILS    IX     MONTANA. 

condition.  The  surface  indications  showed  no  traces  of  alkali,  except 
along  the  north  side  of  the  tract,  where  no  Hooding  had  been  carried 
on.  An  alkali  survey  showed  even  less  alkali  than  had  been  found 
in  September  of  1905.  In  May  the  soil  was  disked  and  harrowed 
preparatory  to  seeding  oats.  The  soil  responded  nicely  to  this  treat- 
ment and  an  excellent  seed  bed  was  obtained.  Russian  side  oats 
were  planted  May  16  and  made  rapid  growth.  A  heavy  stand  was 
secured  that  compared  favorably  with  crops  sown  on  alkali-free  soils 
in  various  parts  of  the  valley.  Severe  wind  and  rain  storms,  how- 
ever, considerably  damaged  the  crop  at  the  ripening  period.  The 
crop  was  harvested  the  last  of  August.  PL  I,  tig.  '2.  shows  the 
appearance  of  the  tract  a  few  days  before  the  crop  was  cut.  The 
yield  Avas  44  bushels  an  acre,  making  the  return  for  the  15  acres 
amount  to  $260.  Considering  that  no  crops  had  ever  been  grown  on 
this  land,  the  results  obtained  the  first  year  after  Hooding  were  very 
gratifying.  They  showed  conclusively  that  the  removal  of  alkali 
had  been  most  thorough  and  that  the  land  was  now  in  condition  to 
grow  any  crop  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  valley. 

At  the  time  the  drop  was  removed  the  tract  was  returned  to  the 
owners.  It  was  the  original  intention  to  leave  the  reclaimed  land 
with  a  satisfactory  stand  of  alfalfa  upon  it,  but  the  rapid  extension 
of  Billings  made  the  land  highly  desirable  for  building  purposes. 
The  owners  therefore  subdivided  the  tract  and  sold  it  for  residence 
purposes,  except  two  lots  which  were  reserved  for  vegetable  garden-. 

PRIVATE    EFFORT    IN .  RECLAIMING    ALKALI    LAND. 

Prior  to  1904,  the  year  in  which  the  Bureau  undertook  the  reclama- 
tion of  the  O'Donnel]  tract,  but  little  effort  was  made  either  to  reclaim 
alkali  lands  or  to  utilize  them  in  any  way.  Generally  when  the  land 
accumulated  sufficient  alkali  it  was  abandoned  to  salt  grass  and 
greasewood  and  valued  only  for  the  scant  pasturage  it  afforded. 
Even  during  the  period  when  the  area  of  alkali  was  fast  increasing, 
the  farmers,  while  deploring  the  injury  to  their  lands,  seemed  unable 
to  adopt  any  preventive  measures.     Many  whose  lands  were  ruined 

moved  elsewhere  and  took  up  new  land,  as  they  could  easily  do  while 

prices  remained  low.     A   few    fanners,  it   is  true,  tried  to  cultivate 

those   portions  of  their   farms  damaged   by   alkali   by   plowing   ill    the 

fall  and  seeding  to  oats  the  following  spring,     But   the  invariable 

result    was   that    the   land   did    not    produce  enough   grain   to   pay    for 
•  •nit ing  and  t hrashing. 
Some  f<-\\  farmers  dug  -hallow  ditches  to  remove  the  seepage  water 

and  some  of  the  alkali,  but  the  ditches  were  not  deep  enough  and 
were  soon  allowed  to  fill  up  again,  so  that  no  beneficial  results  were 
accomplished.     Within    the   last    two   years,   however,   considerable 

progress  has  been   made   in   taking  means  to  remove  alkali    from  the 


PRIVATE    EFFORT    IN    RECLAIMING    ALKALI    LANDS.  1^) 

lands  or  to  prevent  conditions  from  becoming  worse.  In  the  summer 
of  1905  two  drainage  systems  were  installed.  A  bill  has  also  been 
passed  providing  for  the  formation  of  drainage  districts  and  county 
officers  to  look  after  such  matters.  By  the  enactment  of  this  law  it 
is  possible  for  persons  owning  damaged  lands  to  unite  and  con- 
structs drains  with  outlets.  Before  the  passage  of  this  law  it  was  not 
always  possible  to  do  this,  as  there  was  no  way  of  securing  an  outlet 
through  another  man's  land  unless  the  owner  gave  his  consent.  As 
a  result  of  this  law  one  large  district  was  completed  and  active  steps 
were  taken  to  form  other.-.  In  addition  to  these  districts  formed 
under  the  provisions  of  the  State  law.  considerable  work  i<  being 
done  by  groups  of  farmers  cooperating  to  improve  their  land.  ( )n 
account  of  the  interest  manifested  on  every  side  by  the  farmers  in 
the  subject  of  drainage1  the  prospects  are  wry  bright  in  the  Billings 
area. 

With  the  definite  knowledge  that  alkali  is  not  rapidly  encroach- 
ing on  new  good  >oils  and  with  the  question  of  drainage  for  the 
Largest  areas  affected  by  seepage  water  and  alkali  attended  to.  it  now 
remains  for  the  individual  farmer  to  free  his  own  particular  land 
from  alkali.  This  will  require  considerable  effort,  for  some  tracts 
of  alkali  land  included  at  the  present  time  within  the  drainage  dis- 
tricts are  situated  long  distances  from  the  main  drain-.  In  a  region 
of  sandy  subsoils  and  good  underdrainage  reclaiming  alkali  soils 
may  he  accomplished  with  but  little  effort,  but  it  i-  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  heavy  clay  soils  can  be  freed  from  exec—  of  water  and 
alkali  by  a  deep  main  drain  fully  one-half  mile  away.  This  was 
clearly  proved  by  the  history  of  the  O'Donnell  tract  reclaimed  by 
this  Bureau.  The  eastern  end  of  this  tract  was  only  660  feet  from 
a  deep  ditch  which  had  been  <\\i^  prior  to  L898,  yet  in  r.»<U  this  part 
of  the  tract  contained  the  greatest  quantity  of  alkali.  From  this  it 
may  be  inferred  that  while  the  drainage  ditch  removed  the  excess  of 
water  from  this  part  of  the  tract  and  perhaps  checked  the  further 
accumulation  of  alkali  it  did  not  remove  alkali  from  the  upper 
layer-  of  -oil.  This  was  not  accomplished  until  a  drainage  system 
had  been  installed  and  copious  Hooding  resorted  to  for  several 
month-.  And  so  in  many  part-  of  the  valley,  after  the  district 
drainage  systems  have  been  constructed,  in  order  to  remove  any  con 
siderable  quantity  of  alkali  it  will  he  necessary  to  provide  drainage 

for   individual    tract-  of  land.      On   the   hea\\    -oil-   having  clay   -ul> 

-oil-  to  a  depth  of  several  feet  it  will  be  advisable  t«»  place  t he  drains 
at  a  good  depth,  saj  I  or  5  feet,  at  Intervals  of  about  150  feet  apart. 
After  this  work  ha-  been  completed  the  land  should  be  flooded  until 
it  i-  believed  -hallow  rooted  crops  can  be  grown.  For  the  -mall  field 
dram-  tile-  may  l»e  used  m  case  they  can  be  secured  at  reasonable 
prices,  or  boxes  made  of  boards  or  plank-.  <>r.  In  case  these  prove 


20  RECLAMATION    OF    ALKALI    SOILS    IN     MONTANA. 

expensive,  open  ditches  will  prove  effective  it'  cleaned  as  often  as  may 
be  necessary. 

From  the  experience  of  the  Bureau  on  the  O'Donnell  reclamation 
trad  even  the  heaviest  clay  soils  of  the  valley  may  be  freed  from 
alkali  by  flooding  during  the  irrigating  season,  after  an  efficient 
drainage  system  has  been  installed.  When  the  soils  contain  only 
moderate  quantities  of  alkali  in  the  areas  where  drainage  districts 
have  been  found  drainage  of  individual  fields  may  not  he  necessary. 
If  some  crop  that  will  tolerate  some  alkali,  such  as  sugar  beets,  can 
l»c  started  and  the  soil  has  fair  subsoil  drainage  each  Irrigation  will 
remove  a  certain  proportion  of  the  salts,  and  eventually  the  Held  will 
he  entirely  reclaimed.  Undoubtedly  there  are  many  areas  in  the 
drainage  districts  where  the  conditions  of  alkali  and  subsoil  drain- 
age arc  such  that  the  land  can  he  reclaimed  in  this  manner.  Deep 
plowing  of  the  soil  and  liberal  applications  of  water  will  materially 
hasten  the  reclamation  of  such  tracts,  as  well  as  any  course  of  treat- 
ment that  will  check  surface1  evaporation  and  allow  the  ready  per 
eolation  of  water  through  the  soil. 

SIM  MARY. 

The  soils  of  the  Yellow  -stone  Valley,  in  which  Billings  is  situated, 
are  mostly  heavy  loams  and  clays,  which  in  their  natural  state  con- 
tained Large  quantities  of  salts,  especially  in  the  lower  depths.  The 
origin  of  these  salts  is  in  the  shales  and  sandstones,  which  upon 
weathering  have  formed  the  soils  of  the  valley. 

In  the  early  development  of  the  valley  the  areas  visibly  affected 
by  alkali  accumulations  were  small  and  attracted  little  attention. 
With  extensive  irrigation  certain  tracts  of  land  became  wet  and 
swampy,  gradually  accumulated  alkali,  and  finally   were  abandoned. 

This  damage  from  seepage  water  and  alkali  was  clearly  the  result 
of  overirrigation  on  heavy  soils  having  very  poor  natural  drainage. 
For  a  number  of  years  the  area  of  damaged  land-  spread  rapidly. 
and  conditions  were  considered  serious  by  the  farmers  of  the  valley, 
and  many  moved  o>  other  place-  rather  than  combat  such  unusual  and 
formidable  problems. 

An  examination  in  1898  l>\  the  Bureau  of  Soil-  -bowed  thai  the 
deep  -ub-oil-  woe  rich  in  -;i!i-.  that  shallow  drains  would  hi'  inef- 
fectual, and  that  washing  the  surface  only  removed  the  accumulated 

alkali    from  a  -hallow    depth  of  soil.      It    was  pointed  out   that    under 

drainage  to  be  effective  must  be  deep,  and  that  irrigation  water  should 
be  sparingly  used  to  prevent  ruining  lands  at  lower  levels.     Subse 

quenl  studies  of  tin'  -oil  and  alkali  condition-  of  the  valley  mi  I'.'"-' 
more  clearly  defined  the  problems  and  showed  that  the  area  of 
damaged   land-   was  yearly   increasing,  and   that   it    was  imperative 


SUMMARY.  21 

for  the  farmers  to  adopt  measures  to  prevent  widespread  injury  to 
some  of  the  finest  tracts  of  land  in  the  valley. 

The  experiment  in  reclaiming  a  worthless  tract  of  alkali  land  by 
deep  underdrainage  and  surface1  flooding,  conducted  by  the  Bureau 
of  Soils,  proved  successful,  and  after  one  year's  treatment  a  good  crop 
of  oats  was  harvested.  This  work  showed  the  fanners  ju>t  what 
steps  were  necessary  to  reclaim  damaged  land-  and  undoubtedly 
helped  to  arouse  an  interest  in  the  subject. 

At  the  present  time  the  outlook  in  the  valley  is  most  promising, 
owing  to  the  widespread  interest  manifested  in  the  formation  of 
drainage  districts  in  the  area-  most  severely  damaged  by  exec-  of 
seepage  waters  and  alkali.  The  State  drainage  laws  make  it  possible 
for  farmer-  to  construct  large  drainage  systems,  and  such  work  is 
progressing  rapidly,  while  groups  of  farmers  are  closely  cooperating 
to  the  same  end. 

With  the  subject  of  regional  drainage  so  adequately  provided  for, 
the  reclamation  of  small  farms  or  individual  fields  will  follow  as 
soon  a-  the  farmer-  appreciate  the  necessity  of  further  effort  in  addi- 
tion to  the  larger  remedial  measure-  that  have  been  adopted.  In 
some  cases  this  will  consist  of  the  thorough  drainage  of  fields,  usimr 
the  main  drains  as  an  outlet  and  Leaching  the  alkali  from  the  soil 
by  surface  flooding.  In  other  cases  careful  cultivation  and  irriga- 
tion of  crops  not  especially  sensitive  may  be  depended  upon  t<>  remoi  e 
the  -mall  amount  of  salt  contained  in  the  soil. 

In  whatever  way  the  alkali  -oil-  may  he  finally  reclaimed,  the 
people  of  the  valley  are  certainly  to  l»e  congratulated  upon  their  com- 
mendable enterprise  in  so  promptly  undertaking  measures  to  check 
the  ravages  of  seepage  water  and  alkali.  It  is  an  excellent  example 
and  one  that  should  he  followed  by  many  other  districts  in  varion- 
parts  of  tin-  West. 

O 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


3  1262  08928  6719 


